Emergence and Development of Buddhist Philosophy in Nepal

The ancient remains of human settlements provide a fascinating glimpse into how people lived and thought in those times. Among the many philosophies that shaped ancient society, Buddhist philosophy stands out, offering insight into the ideas and consciousness of people 2,500 years ago.  

Buddhism emerged during a period when Vedic rituals, led by Brahmins, dominated society. These rituals, like the Ashwamedha and Rajasuya Yagnas, were elaborate and often involved animal sacrifices. They served not only religious purposes but also as tools for kings and slave owners to expand their power and wealth, benefiting the Brahmins with donations, land, and slaves.  

Buddhism arose as a response to this system. It rejected the expensive and violent Vedic traditions, offering instead the Four Noble Truths and a path focused on non-violence, simplicity, and equality. Early on, it challenged ideas like the eternal soul (Atman) and caste hierarchies, appealing to those seeking alternatives to the rigid social structures of Brahmanism.  

Its message resonated with many, from commoners to rulers like King Bimbisara of Magadha and other prominent leaders. Over time, Buddhism transformed from a grassroots movement into a philosophy embraced by the ruling class.  

Buddhist teachings spread across the Himalayan region and beyond, reaching Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Japan, and more. Its ability to adapt to local cultures helped its popularity grow. Its simple, relatable teachings in local languages made it especially attractive to ordinary people, offering them an escape from caste-based discrimination and a path to personal growth.  

In contrast to the traditional Brahmin belief in an eternal soul and rigid fate, Buddhism emphasized the impermanence of life and the pursuit of enlightenment through ethical living and mindfulness. This refreshing outlook on human life and its purpose made it a transformative force in ancient society.

Geography of Buddhist Philosophy in Nepal

Gautama Buddha was born in Lumbini, Nepal, which is historically known as Rummindehi. This fact is confirmed by Emperor Ashoka’s inscriptions from the 3rd century BCE. Buddhism flourished after his time, spreading its influence worldwide, with origins dating back to 2-3 centuries before Ashoka. When Ashoka visited Lumbini, he identified it as Buddha’s birthplace, marking the site with a stone pillar that researchers later used to confirm its significance.

Buddha’s life is deeply tied to four sacred sites, or Chardhams:

1. Lumbini – where he was born.
2. Bodh Gaya – where he attained enlightenment.
3. Sarnath – where he gave his first sermon.
4. Kushinagar – where he achieved nirvana.

These places became essential in understanding Buddhist philosophy in Nepal. The Tripitaka, Buddhist scriptures, reveals where Buddha explored key philosophical ideas—metaphysics, ethics, and knowledge.

Buddhism’s evolution owes much to scholars and monks who expanded its teachings. Notable figures include Acharyas like Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu, and Dharmakirti, as well as poets and thinkers like Ashwaghosha and Shantideva. In Nepal, influential Buddhist figures include Bhiksu Amritananda and Dr. Sudarshan Mahasthavir. Nepal’s contributions also include institutions like the Lumbini Buddhist University, fostering research and philosophy globally.

This rich legacy continues to inspire devotion and study around the world.

(a) Gautama Buddha (563-483 BC)

Kapilvastu, the ancient capital of the Shakya kingdom, was ruled by Suddhodana, the leader of the Shakya clan. His queen, Mayadevi (also called Mahamaya), gave birth to a son around 563 BC, though various scholars debate the exact year. Some, like Rahul Sankrityayana, place it in 563 BC, while others, like Soviet scholar Se Tokarov, suggest 490 BC, and Acharya Ispradeva estimates 480 BC. Despite these differences, one thing remains certain: Siddhartha Gautama, who would later become the Buddha, was born in Lumbini, Nepal. This is further confirmed by Emperor Ashoka, who erected a stone pillar in the 3rd century BC to mark the sacred site.

Tragically, Mayadevi passed away just a week after giving birth, and Siddhartha was raised by her sister, Prajavati. His childhood was full of comfort and luxury, as befitting a prince. He was well-educated and trained in various disciplines. At 19, he married Princess Gopa (Yashodhara) of the Devadaha kingdom, and they later had a son named Rahul.

However, even surrounded by riches, Siddhartha felt a deep unease. He realized that human life was full of suffering—birth, aging, illness, and death. This sparked a burning question in his mind: What is the ultimate solution to human suffering?

At 29, leaving behind his family and royal life, Siddhartha embarked on the Great Renunciation (Mahabhinishkraman) to find answers. For six years, he wandered, meeting wise teachers, practicing extreme asceticism, and seeking the truth. Finally, at the age of 35, while meditating under a large Bodhi tree in Bodh Gaya, he achieved enlightenment. In that moment, he uncovered the Four Noble Truths, the cornerstone of Buddhist philosophy:

1. Life is full of suffering.
2. Suffering has a cause.
3. There is a way to end suffering.
4. The path to end suffering leads to ultimate peace.

This revelation laid the foundation for Buddhism, a philosophy that continues to inspire people worldwide to seek freedom from suffering and live with mindfulness and compassion.

b) Arya Mahakashyapa (contemporary of Buddha)

After the Buddha’s Nirvana, his teachings were preserved with great care, ensuring that the original language, style, and content remained unchanged. The effort to compile and organize these teachings was led by Buddha’s closest friend, the revered Acharya Mahakashyapa.

Acharya Mahakashyapa played a pivotal role in editing and structuring the Buddhist scriptures. Supporting him were other devoted disciples, including Ananda Kaushalyana, who had a remarkable memory of the Buddha’s words, and Acharya Upali, known for his unwavering loyalty and knowledge of discipline.

Together, they compiled the Sutrapitaka (Buddha’s discourses), the Vinayapitaka (monastic rules), and began organizing the teachings that later formed the Abhidharmapitaka. Their collaborative effort ensured that the wisdom of the Buddha would endure for generations.

(c) Acharya Sanghabhadra (400 A.D.)

Acharya Sanghabhadra, a contemporary and philosophical rival of Vasubandhu, had his own strong views on Buddhist philosophy in Nepal. To challenge Vasubandhu’s ideas, he wrote a book called “Koshkarka”. Another remarkable work by Sanghabhadra, titled “Samayapradipika”, stands out for its unique take on linguistic theory. This treatise was even translated into Chinese by the famous traveler Huen Sang in the 7th century.

The central message of Samayapradipika revolves around understanding the true meaning of religion as the foundation for grasping Buddhist philosophy. Sanghabhadra explains that religion has two dimensions: the outer meaning and the inner meaning. These two are deeply interconnected and cannot be separated.

He further delves into how this mysterious world comes into being through the interplay of an objective form of religion—described as the most subtle and profound form of existence. According to Sanghabhadra, the essence of power behind all religions is fundamentally the same. Yet, Tathagata Buddha himself stated that every religion arises due to specific causes.

In Koshkarka, Sanghabhadra explores this further, emphasizing that the true heart of Buddhist philosophy lies in understanding the causes of dharma (universal truth) and addressing how to prevent obstacles to spiritual growth. Through his works, he provides a roadmap for uncovering the deeper essence of existence and religion.

(d) Monk Buddhabhadra (AD 358-429)

Buddhabhadra, born in 358 AD into the Sakya dynasty of Lumbini, hailed from Kapilvastu and spent part of his life in the vibrant Kantipur Valley. A brilliant scholar of his time, Acharya Buddhabhadra played a key role in spreading Buddhist philosophy far and wide.

In 406 AD, he journeyed to China with the monk Paolin, bringing with him a treasure trove of wisdom. Among his significant contributions were translations of key Buddhist texts like the Avatamsaka Sutra, Samadhi Sutra, He Garbha Sutra, Mahaparinirvana Sutra, and Jnana Sutra. These works enriched Chinese Buddhism and left a lasting impact.

Buddhabhadra passed away in China in 429 AD, but his legacy lives on. To honor his contributions, the Sandod Corporation of China erected a statue in Qingdao, keeping his memory alive for generations to come.

e) Bhikkhu Amritananda “Mahasthavira” (1975-2047)

Monk Amritananda Mahasthavir was a remarkable figure in the world of Nepali Buddhist literature. Born in 1975 in Bhimsen village to Motimaya Shakya, he dedicated his life to the study and promotion of Buddhism. In 1996, he embraced monastic life, marking the beginning of a journey that would leave an indelible mark on Nepali Vadmaya and Buddhist philosophy in Nepal.

With over 70 works to his name, Monk Amritananda’s writings reflect his deep understanding of Buddhism. His style is known for its simplicity and clarity, making complex ideas accessible to everyone. Through his books and pamphlets in both the Newari and Nepali languages, he instilled unwavering faith in the teachings of Buddha.

His contributions include Newari translations and original works in:

1. Agrasravana
2. Aryasatya
3. Buddha Biography
4. Mahakashyapa Mahasthavir

He also translated The Brief Life of Buddha, Grihi Vinaya, and Buddha Reign in Nepali. He explored various aspects of Buddhist history, including the lives of Brahmins, householders, women, royal families, and wanderers during Buddha’s time.

Honored with numerous titles and accolades from Nepal, America, and other countries, Monk Amritananda’s work elevated the status of Buddhism in Nepali literature. His legacy lives on through his writings, which continue to inspire readers with their wisdom and insight. He attained Mahaparinirvana in 2047 B.S., leaving behind a rich heritage for generations to cherish.

(f) Bhikshu Pragyananda Mahasthavira (1957-2049)

Pragyananda Mahasthavir is also a prominent figure in Nepal’s Buddhist community. He was born in the vibrant neighborhood of Itumbahal, Kathmandu, in Baisakh 1957. His parents, Harshveer and Mohanmaya Tuladhar, undoubtedly played a role in shaping his early life.

In 1987, he embraced monastic life by taking Pravanya, and just two years later, in 1989, he was formally ordained by the revered monk Chandramani Mahasthavir. This marked the beginning of a lifelong journey dedicated to spreading the teachings of Buddhism.

His mission took him far and wide, with travels to spiritual hubs like Thailand, Myanmar, and Lhasa. Along the way, he made lasting contributions to Buddhist literature, an area that had seen a dearth of Nepali texts at the time. Among his many works, “Paritran Part One”, “Paritran Part Two”, “Buddhopadesh”, and “Modanupashyana, Vishuddhi Jnanagnana” stand out as pillars of Nepali Buddhist literature. He also translated the “Dhatu Vibhandaka”, a significant Buddhist text, bringing it to a wider audience.

Pragyananda Mahasthavir’s legacy extends beyond his writings; his life’s work enriched Nepali Buddhism at a time when it desperately needed a resurgence. On February 28, 2049, he attained Mahaparinirvana, leaving behind a luminous legacy that continues to inspire.

(g) Bhikkhu Kumar Kashyap (B.S 1983-2068)

Bhikshu Kumar Kashyap was a trailblazing Buddhist scholar and the first in Nepal to earn the prestigious title of Tripitakacharya. Born in 1983 in Taksar village, Tansen, Palpa, to Santaman Shakya and Tejalakshmi Shakya, his early education took place in his hometown.

He embraced monastic life in 1999 and became a full-fledged monk in 2008 under Bhikshu Chandramani. By 2011, he had earned his Tripitakacharya degree from Delhi University, marking a historic achievement in the study of Buddhist philosophy and literature.

Bhikshu Kashyap’s contributions gained him global recognition. He was honored with titles like Mahasaddharma Pariyatti Pradeep (India), Vidya Lankar Padma Bhushan (Sri Lanka), and Aggamhasdharmajotik Dhaj (Myanmar). He also received accolades from Thailand, Japan, Russia, Mongolia, and beyond.

A prolific writer, he authored works like Gautama Buddha, The Path to Buddhahood, Alokasutra, Dashaparimita, and Buddhist Economics, where he explored the economic foundations of Buddhist philosophy. His masterpiece, Dashaparimita, remains a cornerstone in Buddhist literature.

Bhikshu Kumar Kashyap passed away on February 14, 2068, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire Buddhist scholars worldwide. His work bridged ancient wisdom and modern thought, cementing his place as a luminary in Buddhist philosophy in Nepal.

(h) Bhikshu Sudarshan Mahasthavira (B.S 1995-2059)

Bhikshu Sudarshan, a revered figure in Nepal’s Buddhist community, was born on 17th Ashadh 1995 in Bakumbhal, Lalitpur, to parents Nhucheraj and Harshamaya Shakya. He embraced monastic life in 2007 after receiving Pravrajya and went on to earn a master’s degree in history, along with the prestigious Mahendra Vidyabhushan and the title Sahitya Ratna.

In 2021, Bhikshu Sudarshan was ordained by Chandramani Mahasthavir, dedicating himself fully to spreading Buddhist teachings. His travels took him to countries like Sri Lanka, Thailand, China, Japan, and Myanmar. A prolific writer, he authored influential works like Buddhist Culture (2025), Buddha and Baudhavani, and Saptasambodhyanga, along with notable Newari texts such as Amritmay Maun and Mahamangal.

Through his life and writings, Bhikshu Sudarshan upheld and enriched Nepal’s Buddhist heritage. He attained Parinirvana in 2059, leaving behind a legacy of wisdom and faith.

(i) Bhikshu Gyanpurnik Mahasthavira (B.S. 1996)

Bhikshu Jnanapurnik, a respected Buddhist monk and scholar born in 1996 in Taksartol, Palpa Tansen. His father, Suryalal Shakya, and mother, Chandamaya Shakya, gave him the name Hiralal Shakya. He took his vows in 2013 and became a full monk in 2015. Driven by a passion for learning, he completed his 2028 San in 2028 and earned a diploma in Sanskrit. Known for his wisdom and ability, he became the first monk of Kala Rumandhaja.

Jnanapurnik has translated over 40 Buddhist texts and established Nepal’s only Pravrajya Buddhist school to teach Buddhist philosophy in Nepal. His translations include the Payasi Sutra and Nhugu Paritran in Nepali. He has also traveled to Burma (Myanmar), Malaysia, and other places to spread Buddhism and promote goodwill.

(j) Bhikshu Ashwaghosha Mahasthavira (B.S 1983)

Monk Ashwaghosha Mahasthavir is a prominent figure in the Buddhist community of Nepal, known for his contributions both as a spiritual leader and a guide for the nation. Born on May 31, 1983, in Okumbahal, Lalitpur, his journey began in a humble family. His father, Chandrajyoti Shakya, and mother, Lakshmi Maya Shakya, were deeply rooted in tradition. His mother, who sewed clothes for the Rana family, famously took the vow to chant 50 million Buddhist mantras, a testament to her dedication.

Ashwaghosha’s desire for a deeper understanding of life and a path to freedom from suffering began early. With aspirations to study, travel, and bring happiness to the world, he took his first step in 2001 at the age of 16, when he received the vows from Bhikkhu Chandramani Mahasthavir. He then joined the Bhikshusangha, a renowned Buddhist institution led by Guru Bhikkhu Amritananda. By 2006, he was fully ordained as a Buddhist monk, taking the name Ashwaghosha.

His thirst for knowledge led him to Sri Lanka, where he studied Buddhist philosophy and Pali literature, earning the title of Dharmarakshit Tripitakacharya. In 2008, he moved to Sarnath, India, where he continued his studies at the prestigious Kashi Hindu University.

Upon returning to Nepal in 2018, he began editing the monthly magazine Dharmakirti from Anandkuti Vihar. He also founded a monk training center in 2038, where he taught Buddhist philosophy in Nepal and emphasized the importance of ethical living among monks. This center helped train young monks, with 10 Shramners being the first group to receive formal education.

Throughout his life, Monk Ashwaghosha authored numerous books on Buddhist philosophy, offering valuable insights into the teachings of Buddhism. His notable works among many others include:

1. Biography of Gautama Buddha (2013)
2. Buddhist Philosophy (2028)
3. Buddhism and Pragmatic Religion (2029)
4. Democracy and Socialism in Buddha’s Time (2055)
5. The Art of Living a Dharma Life (2060)

His writings in Nepali further expanded the reach of Buddhist thought in Nepal.

Monk Ashwaghosha’s legacy is not only in his writings but also in his role as a guide for Nepal’s Buddhist community and his dedication to connecting Buddhist philosophy with the nation. He passed away on the 22nd of Chaitra 2075 at Grandi Hospital, leaving behind a lasting impact on both spiritual and intellectual circles in Nepal.

(k) Bhadant Jatil (2008).

Bhadanta Complex deserves to be recognized alongside the most respected Buddhist monks and Dharmacharyas of Nepal. He hails from Shankarnagar Ga.V.S. in Rupandehi District, specifically from Ward No. 6 in Digarnagar, where he runs the renowned International Buddhist Pariyatti Udaya Vihara. This monastery is a hub for aspiring monks and nuns who study early Buddhist teachings (Pariyatti). It also attracts Buddhist monks from countries like Burma, Thailand, and beyond, who come to share their wisdom.

Bhadanta Samsal was born on 2nd Chaitra, 2008, to Dal Bahadur Tamang and Bishnumaya Tamang. He began his education early and, after receiving his ordination in 2021 from Bhadanta Bhante, the head of Myanmar’s Ratnavihara, he dedicated himself to the study of Buddhist philosophy. His deep understanding of these teachings has made him a respected figure, often traveling to deliver religious discourses.

In 2041, Bhadanta Samsal was honored with the title of Dharmakathika in Myanmar. He is known as an expert in Pratinyasamutapada, a fundamental concept in Buddhist philosophy. His book, Pratinyasamutpadachakra, first published in 2053 and updated in 2065, delves into the cyclical nature of life—a topic he has made a significant contribution to. Through his work and practical creativity, Bhadanta Samsal has greatly enriched the world of Buddhist philosophy.

(l) Dunda Bahadur Bajracharya (2004)

Dunda Bahadur Bajracharya is one of the key figures in bringing Buddhist philosophy to Nepali literature, alongside Bhiksu Amritananda. Born in 2004 in Gabhal, Lalitpur, he grew up in a well-educated, Buddhist family. With an M.A. in Economics and a law degree, Dunda was drawn to Buddhism early on, inspiring him to translate key Buddhist texts into Nepali and Newari.

He is known for translating monumental works like the Long Nikaya, Majjimnikaya, and Samyutnikaya, making them more accessible to Nepali speakers. His translation of the Dilganikaya was a significant step in introducing Buddhist texts to a broader audience. His work, especially the Majjimnikaya, which sheds light on the historical, religious, and social aspects of the Buddhist era, has greatly benefited scholars and researchers.

For his contributions, Dunda was awarded the Dharmodaya Dhamma Samman at the Sixth National Buddhist Conference in 2054 and honored with the “Sanghanayak Smritikosh” by Sri Shakyasingh Buddhist Vihara. He was also recognized by Ratnakar Mahavihara as a Tripitaka translator. Dunda’s tireless efforts in translating and editing Buddhist texts have cemented his place as a distinguished figure in Buddhist literature.

More Nepali personalities who contributed to the philosophy of Buddhism

While researching Buddhist philosophy, literature, and scholarship, I encountered an overwhelming number of names that could be included. As the Sanskrit saying goes, “Vinayakam prakurvano rachyamas vanarah” — “When you start making an idol of Ganesha, you end up with an idol of a monkey.” In other words, the list became so extensive that it was impossible to cover every scholar and their work in detail. Instead, I focused on a few key figures based on the information I gathered from sources like Professor Tilak Acharya, the current Registrar of Lumbini Buddhist University, and Indra Prasad Kafle.

Some of the notable scholars in Buddhist philosophy in Nepal and literature include:

1. Namakhya Meen Bahadur Shakya
2. Punyaprasad Parajuli
3. Narayan Rizal
4. Sridhar Namam Rimpoche
5. Chogwe Chiring
6. Bhikshu Kaudinya
7. Deepavajra Bajracharya

I also found mention of figures from ancient times, such as Kanaka Sri Mahakaruna, Ratnakirti, Advayavajra, Leela Vajra, Sheel Manj Wagishwarakirti, Dharmakirti, and Punyakar Bhadra, who helped spread Buddhist philosophy.

However, due to the scarcity of detailed information and the complexity of their works, I had to limit the scope of this topic for now.

The main structure of Buddhist philosophy

Buddhist philosophy, like many ancient philosophies, is built on three key elements: Tattvamimamsa (metaphysical inquiry), Knowledge and Pramanamimamsa (epistemology), and Achar Mimamsa (ethics). Let’s break these down to see how they shape the Buddhist worldview.

First, in the realm of metaphysics, Buddhist philosophy delves into the nature of the world, the origins of life, and the causes of suffering. This part is known as Tattvamimamsa, which seeks to understand the building blocks of existence. Topics like skandha (the aggregates), anatman (non-self), impermanence, dependent origination (pratītyasamutpāda), and the concept of emptiness (śūnyatā) are key here. It explores questions like: Why do we suffer? What causes suffering? How can we end it?

Second, in terms of knowledge, Buddhist philosophy emphasizes the importance of understanding the different ways we come to know the truth. This includes direct perception, logical reasoning, and inferential evidence. The Buddhist approach also challenges the idea of a permanent self and focuses on emptiness and the nature of reality as ever-changing and interconnected.

Finally, in the ethical realm, Achar Mimamsa outlines the path to personal and societal well-being. It encourages practices like following the Noble Eightfold Path, living by the precepts of the Triratna (the Three Jewels), and engaging in ethical actions that promote compassion, mindfulness, and wisdom. Concepts such as non-violence (Ahimsa), meditation techniques like Vipassana, and virtues like Mudita (sympathetic joy) and Karuna (compassion) are emphasized as ways to foster harmony and altruism in society.

In summary, Buddhist philosophy is a reflection of its time—developing during a period of social transition between the slave and feudal systems. It represents the highest intellectual achievements of that era, while offering a comprehensive approach to understanding the world, gaining knowledge, and living an ethical life.

Understanding the Core of Buddhist Philosophy

Buddhist philosophy delves into understanding the origins, structure, and interconnectedness of the world, including all living creatures and the consciousness that defines human life. This area of study, known as tattamimansa or sattamimansa, is central to Buddhist thought.

In exploring Buddhist philosophy, we can break it down into several key themes:

1. Temporalism: This part of Buddhist philosophy focuses on the impermanent nature of existence and includes concepts such as:
   • Skandha (the five aggregates of existence)
   • Aytana (the six sense bases)
   • Dhatu (elements or spheres of experience)
   • Pudgala (the concept of the person)
2. Pratītyasamutpāda (Dependent Origination): This principle explains how all phenomena arise due to causes and conditions. It includes twelve stages:
   • Ignorance
   • Sanskara (mental formations)
   • Consciousness
   • Name and form
   • Six senses
   • Contact
   • Sensation
   • Craving
   • Clinging
   • Becoming
   • Birth
   • Old age and death
3. Anātman: The concept of no-self, rejecting the idea of a permanent soul.
4. Immaterialism: The belief that the mind is not material, separate from physical elements.
5. Atheism: Buddhism doesn’t rely on a creator god or divine being.
6. Avyakrita Siddhanta: The principle that some truths are beyond human understanding.
7. Rejection of Omniscience: The Buddhist view that enlightenment does not grant absolute knowledge of everything.
8. Nirvana: The ultimate goal of liberation from suffering and the cycle of rebirth.
9. Pudgalavāda (Personalism): A view that the person is not simply a collection of aggregates but a more complex identity.

Buddhist philosophy presents these themes in various ways, but all are interrelated in understanding the nature of existence, suffering, and the path to enlightenment. These concepts form the foundation of Buddhist thought and offer profound insights into the nature of life and consciousness.